Here are my notes on the topic of intelligence :
Definition :- Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well. It has some key components -
1.Direction : ability to set up a goal and work towards it.
2.Adaptability :ability to make necessary adjustments to solve a problem
3.Comprehension :ability to gain a good understanding of what the problem is
4.Self-evaluation :person's idea whether heor she has been able to correctly solve the problem
The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
According to Howard Gardner (1986), intelligence is “the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural settings”.
An analysis of the above and other definitions indicates that intelligence consists of three general classes of skills or abilities:
1. Adapting to new situations and changing task demands.
2. Learning or profiting optimally from experience or training.
3. Thinking abstractly using symbols and concepts.
Robert Sternberg (1997),a pioneer in the field of intelligence research,
has defined intelligence as follows:
Intelligence comprises the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context.
Models of Intelligence : There have been a plethora of ways in which people have tried to understand intelligence. Here is an account of some of the theories.
1.Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a “Two Factor theory” of intelligence. According to him, intelligence consists of General (‘g’) and Specific (‘s’) factors. This theory maintained that all intellectual activities share a single common factor,called ‘g’. Characterised as mental energy,‘g’ is considered responsible for relationships between different human activities. Positive correlations between any two factors were attributed to ‘g’ factor. In addition to ‘g’, this theory also postulates a number of specific factors ‘s’, each being strictly specific to a single activity.
2. “Theory of Primary Mental Abilities” which states that intelligence consists of seven major factors, each of which is relatively independent of the others. These factors are: Verbal Comprehension, Verbal Fluency, Inductive Reasoning, Spatial Visualisation, Number, Memory, and
Perceptual Speed.
3. Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that there are two ‘g’ factors, ‘gf’ (for fluid intelligence) and ‘gc’ (for crystallised intelligence). Fluid intelligence includes the ability to think creatively, to reason abstractly, to make inferences from data,and to understand relationships. It can be measured by analogy and classification problems. It is strongly influenced by heredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligence includes what a person learns and retains from experience; so, it is strongly influenced by environment. Tests of vocabulary and general information can be used to measure crystallised intelligence. It has been found that fluid intelligence tends to decline at an early age than crystallised intelligence though both show rapid decline starting in
the late seventies.
4. On the basis of more than two decades of factor analytic research, J. P. Guilford proposed a box-like model, which is known as Structure-of-Intellect Model. This theory organises intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operations—what the respondent does, Contents—the nature of the materials or information on which operations are performed, and Products—
the form in which information is processed by the respondents. Guilford’s classification
includes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resulting into 150 cells in the model. In each cell at least one factor or ability is expected; some cells may contain more than one factor.
5. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences : Based on 3 principles: Intelligence is not a single entity but has multiple distinct intelligences, these intelligences are independent of each other, different types of intelligences interact with each other to solve a given problem.
The 8 intelligences are:
1.Linguistic :reading,writing,comprehension,talking etc.
2.Logical-mathematical :abstract reasoning,manipulation of symbols.
3.Spatial :navigation,mental images..
4.Musical :understand pitch,tone,musical creativity.
5.Bodily-kinesthetic : dexterity,coordination and body control
6.Interpersonal :understanding motives,feelings and behaviour of people
7.Intrapersonal : good understanding of one's self and identity
8.Naturalistic :recognizing flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world.
6. Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence :According to this theory, there are 3 sub-theories of intelligence : Componential, Experiential and Contextual .
Componential sub-theory consists of internal mental mechanisms responsible for intelligent behaviour.The components of intelligence serve three different functions :
Metacomponents are the executive processes that are involved in planning strategies,monitoring progress,allocating resources to problem solving.
Performance components are processes used to perform a given task.This component is best tested by modern intelligence tests. Knowledge Acquisition components are processes used in learning.
Experiential subtheory focuses on the relation between a person's inner mental world and the external world.It takes into account the effect of intelligence on one’s experiences as well as the effect of one's interactions with the environment on intelligence. This view adds Creativity to overall intelligence.(combine various experiences in uniquely original ways)
The second function of experiential theory is to automatize tasks that are done routinely.(driving,cycling etc.)
Contextual subtheory deals with the ways in which people shape their environments,adapt to different contexts and make the most of available resources. (Street-Smarts or Situational Intelligence) It is the effective management of self and the practical management of the business of everyday life.
7. PASS model of intelligence : Extending the information processing approach, J.P. Das,Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed this theory. The basic statement of the model is that intelligence can
be understood as a result of interdependent functioning of three neurological systems:
those responsible for arousal (and attention), coding (or processing), and planning. The two
coding processes are simultaneous and successive. Thus the theory is known as PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive) Theory.
Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was developed. The system employs verbal and non-verbal tests presented through visual and auditory sensory channels. It is appropriate for use with individuals between ages 5 to 11, and has been specially designed for use with intervention purposes. Some measures are given in Box 1.3. The system is considered an appropriate and innovative tool for the assessment of cognitive status.
Creativity and Intelligence :
Highly intelligent people may or may not be creative but highly creative persons are without doubt highly intelligent. Sternberg talks about three types of intelligence:Analytic, Creative , and Practical.Creativity is a process that requires the balance and application of various aspects
of intelligence. The creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond the given data to generate novel and interesting ideas. A creative person is a good synthetic thinker, sees the connections and relationships others don’t see. In addition, creative people also have the ability to analyse and evaluate ideas. The practical intelligence is the third aspect of creativity, which refers to the ability to translate theory into practice and transfer abstract ideas into practical accomplishments. Thus, while an intelligent person is high only on analytical intelligence, a creative person is high on all the three aspects.
Culture and Intelligence : Notions of intelligence differ in different cultural contexts.
The salient features of Western culture are urbanisation, high use of technology and schooling.
It encourages the development of the following factors in children :
1.generalisation : going beyond the given information
2.speed
3.minimal moves : efficiency
4.preference of mental over the physical
5.creativity
All this gives rise to a technological intelligence characterized by attention,observation,speed and higher achievement in school.
Indian notions of intelligence :
The following four competencies constitute intelligence :
1. Cognitive Competence :context,comprehension,problem-solving etc.
2. Social Competence :following social norms, obedience and respect to elders,concern for poor etc
3. Entrepreneurial Competence :hardwork,commitment,vigilance,goal-directed behaviour
4. Emotional Competence :control over emotions,honesty, politeness,etc.
Indian concepts of intelligence are not limited to the cognitive domain and are more inclusive. So they are called "integral intelligence".
Other cultural notions of Intelligence:
Africa Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such as
cooperativeness and obedience).
Baoule Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speaking
well in public.
China Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking).
Japan (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take another’s point of
view, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading and
writing.
Kenya Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead.
Uganda Slow, careful and active.
Yoruba More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspective
and constructive intelligence.
The next post will talk about intelligence testing and measurement.
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