Here are my notes on the topic of intelligence :
Definition :- Intelligence is the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well. It has some key components -
1.Direction : ability to set up a goal and work towards it.
2.Adaptability :ability to make necessary adjustments to solve a problem
3.Comprehension :ability to gain a good understanding of what the problem is
4.Self-evaluation :person's idea whether heor she has been able to correctly solve the problem
The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
According to Howard Gardner (1986), intelligence is “the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products which are valued within one or more cultural settings”.
An analysis of the above and other definitions indicates that intelligence consists of three general classes of skills or abilities:
1. Adapting to new situations and changing task demands.
2. Learning or profiting optimally from experience or training.
3. Thinking abstractly using symbols and concepts.
Robert Sternberg (1997),a pioneer in the field of intelligence research,
has defined intelligence as follows:
Intelligence comprises the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context.
Models of Intelligence : There have been a plethora of ways in which people have tried to understand intelligence. Here is an account of some of the theories.
1.Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a “Two Factor theory” of intelligence. According to him, intelligence consists of General (‘g’) and Specific (‘s’) factors. This theory maintained that all intellectual activities share a single common factor,called ‘g’. Characterised as mental energy,‘g’ is considered responsible for relationships between different human activities. Positive correlations between any two factors were attributed to ‘g’ factor. In addition to ‘g’, this theory also postulates a number of specific factors ‘s’, each being strictly specific to a single activity.
2. “Theory of Primary Mental Abilities” which states that intelligence consists of seven major factors, each of which is relatively independent of the others. These factors are: Verbal Comprehension, Verbal Fluency, Inductive Reasoning, Spatial Visualisation, Number, Memory, and
Perceptual Speed.
3. Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that there are two ‘g’ factors, ‘gf’ (for fluid intelligence) and ‘gc’ (for crystallised intelligence). Fluid intelligence includes the ability to think creatively, to reason abstractly, to make inferences from data,and to understand relationships. It can be measured by analogy and classification problems. It is strongly influenced by heredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligence includes what a person learns and retains from experience; so, it is strongly influenced by environment. Tests of vocabulary and general information can be used to measure crystallised intelligence. It has been found that fluid intelligence tends to decline at an early age than crystallised intelligence though both show rapid decline starting in
the late seventies.
4. On the basis of more than two decades of factor analytic research, J. P. Guilford proposed a box-like model, which is known as Structure-of-Intellect Model. This theory organises intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operations—what the respondent does, Contents—the nature of the materials or information on which operations are performed, and Products—
the form in which information is processed by the respondents. Guilford’s classification
includes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resulting into 150 cells in the model. In each cell at least one factor or ability is expected; some cells may contain more than one factor.
5. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences : Based on 3 principles: Intelligence is not a single entity but has multiple distinct intelligences, these intelligences are independent of each other, different types of intelligences interact with each other to solve a given problem.
The 8 intelligences are:
1.Linguistic :reading,writing,comprehension,talking etc.
2.Logical-mathematical :abstract reasoning,manipulation of symbols.
3.Spatial :navigation,mental images..
4.Musical :understand pitch,tone,musical creativity.
5.Bodily-kinesthetic : dexterity,coordination and body control
6.Interpersonal :understanding motives,feelings and behaviour of people
7.Intrapersonal : good understanding of one's self and identity
8.Naturalistic :recognizing flora and fauna and making a distinction in the natural world.
6. Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence :According to this theory, there are 3 sub-theories of intelligence : Componential, Experiential and Contextual .
Componential sub-theory consists of internal mental mechanisms responsible for intelligent behaviour.The components of intelligence serve three different functions :
Metacomponents are the executive processes that are involved in planning strategies,monitoring progress,allocating resources to problem solving.
Performance components are processes used to perform a given task.This component is best tested by modern intelligence tests. Knowledge Acquisition components are processes used in learning.
Experiential subtheory focuses on the relation between a person's inner mental world and the external world.It takes into account the effect of intelligence on one’s experiences as well as the effect of one's interactions with the environment on intelligence. This view adds Creativity to overall intelligence.(combine various experiences in uniquely original ways)
The second function of experiential theory is to automatize tasks that are done routinely.(driving,cycling etc.)
Contextual subtheory deals with the ways in which people shape their environments,adapt to different contexts and make the most of available resources. (Street-Smarts or Situational Intelligence) It is the effective management of self and the practical management of the business of everyday life.
7. PASS model of intelligence : Extending the information processing approach, J.P. Das,Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) proposed this theory. The basic statement of the model is that intelligence can
be understood as a result of interdependent functioning of three neurological systems:
those responsible for arousal (and attention), coding (or processing), and planning. The two
coding processes are simultaneous and successive. Thus the theory is known as PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive) Theory.
Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was developed. The system employs verbal and non-verbal tests presented through visual and auditory sensory channels. It is appropriate for use with individuals between ages 5 to 11, and has been specially designed for use with intervention purposes. Some measures are given in Box 1.3. The system is considered an appropriate and innovative tool for the assessment of cognitive status.
Creativity and Intelligence :
Highly intelligent people may or may not be creative but highly creative persons are without doubt highly intelligent. Sternberg talks about three types of intelligence:Analytic, Creative , and Practical.Creativity is a process that requires the balance and application of various aspects
of intelligence. The creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond the given data to generate novel and interesting ideas. A creative person is a good synthetic thinker, sees the connections and relationships others don’t see. In addition, creative people also have the ability to analyse and evaluate ideas. The practical intelligence is the third aspect of creativity, which refers to the ability to translate theory into practice and transfer abstract ideas into practical accomplishments. Thus, while an intelligent person is high only on analytical intelligence, a creative person is high on all the three aspects.
Culture and Intelligence : Notions of intelligence differ in different cultural contexts.
The salient features of Western culture are urbanisation, high use of technology and schooling.
It encourages the development of the following factors in children :
1.generalisation : going beyond the given information
2.speed
3.minimal moves : efficiency
4.preference of mental over the physical
5.creativity
All this gives rise to a technological intelligence characterized by attention,observation,speed and higher achievement in school.
Indian notions of intelligence :
The following four competencies constitute intelligence :
1. Cognitive Competence :context,comprehension,problem-solving etc.
2. Social Competence :following social norms, obedience and respect to elders,concern for poor etc
3. Entrepreneurial Competence :hardwork,commitment,vigilance,goal-directed behaviour
4. Emotional Competence :control over emotions,honesty, politeness,etc.
Indian concepts of intelligence are not limited to the cognitive domain and are more inclusive. So they are called "integral intelligence".
Other cultural notions of Intelligence:
Africa Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such as
cooperativeness and obedience).
Baoule Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speaking
well in public.
China Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking).
Japan (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take another’s point of
view, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading and
writing.
Kenya Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead.
Uganda Slow, careful and active.
Yoruba More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspective
and constructive intelligence.
The next post will talk about intelligence testing and measurement.
Sunday, January 23, 2011
Friday, January 21, 2011
Random facts for the aspiring bureaucrat .
Well ,this is supposed to be interesting for a certain section of the people. I will list out certain facts and then will reveal the connection. Casual readers may not appreciate the purpose of this post. You have been warned !
1. Kiang Nongbah : The British imposed a house-tax in 1860 which was met with resentment and within a few months, the people rose in a rebellion that was easily put down as the rebels were not organised. Towards the close of 1860 income tax was also levied in addition to the house-tax. There was an apprehension in the air that tax would also be levied on betel and betel-nut. Imposition of these taxes created turmoil amongst the Jaintias and they rose again in a fierce rebellion in 1862. The magnitude of the upsurge was such that as many as seven regiments and detachments of troops were put into action to suppress it. Jowai, which was besieged by the rebels for about 3 weeks, was thus reoccupied amidst heavy casualties. The leader and guiding spirit in this rebellion was a young man, U Kiang Nongbah. In the first rebellion he kept his identity secret and thus avoided arrest. He was extremely shrewd and a great organiser. He contacted all the Dolois and Sirdars without causing any suspicion. He managed to hoodwink the British Intelligence Service. They had no trace of his movements and activities. Yet, ultimately he was defeated because of the superior might of the British. In the unequal fight that ensured, hundreds of Jaintias were killed and U Kiang Nongbah was betrayed, captured and hung publicly to strike terror into the hearts of the Jaintias on December 30, 1862. When he was put to the gallows, he said, in a clear voice: “If my face turns eastward when I die on the rope, we shall be free again within a hundred years. If it turns westwards, we shall be enslaved forever”. His prophesy came true as India became free within a hundred years!
2. Guru Gobind Singh (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ, Hindi: गुरु गोबिन्द सिंह, Marathi: गुरू गोबिंद सिंघ; 22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708) was the tenth Guru of Sikhism. He was born in Patna, Bihar in India and became a Guru on 11 November 1675, at the age of nine years, succeeding his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. He was the leader of the Sikh faith, a warrior, a poet, and a philosopher. In the Sikh society, Guru Gobind Singh is considered a perfect example of manhood; highly educated, skilled in horsemanship, armed combat, chivalrous, and generous in character.[2]
Guru Gobind Singh's life and teachings have had a lasting impression on Sikh ideology as well as in their daily life. His establishment of the Khalsa is considered as one of the most important events in the history of Sikhism. He fought twenty defensive battles with the Mughals and their alliances, such as Rajas of Shivalik Hills. Guru Gobind Singh was the last human Sikh Guru; and in Nanded he declared the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhism, as the next permanent Sikh Guru on October 7, 1708.
3. Maski is a village and an archaeological site in the Raichur district of the state of Karnataka, India. It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. The site came into prominence with the discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka by C. Beadon in 1915. It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Asoka in it instead of the earlier edicts that referred him as Devanampiye piyadasi. This edict was important to conclude that many edicts found earlier in the Indian sub-continent in the name of Devanampiye piyadasi, all belonged to Emperor Ashoka.[3] The edict is etched on a rock-face of Durgada-gudda, one of the gneissic outcrops that are present in the site.
4. Land grants to religious institutions were called Brahmadeya, (i.e. donated to Brahmins) Devadana (donated to Gods) and Agrahara (Settlement – of priests) These lands donated to the temples and monasteries apart from being used as normal tenancy also carried a right vested with the temple authorities to call for unpaid labour (called Vishti) as a religious service to the temple from the tillers on the donated land.
Lands were given as brahmadeya either to a single Brahmana or to several Brahmana families which ranged from a few to several hundreds or even more than a thousand, as seen in the South Indian context. Brahmadeyas were invariably located near major irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. Often new irrigation sources were constructed when brahmadeyas were created, especially in areas dependent on rains and in arid and semi-arid regions. When located in areas of intensive agriculture in the river valleys, they served to integrate other settlements of a subsihena level production. Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed together to form a brahmadeya or an agrahara. The taxes from such villages were assigned to the Brahmana donees, who were also given the right to get the donated land cultivated. Boundaries of the donated land or village were very often carefully demarcated. The various types of land, wet, dry and garden land within the village were specified. Sometimes even specific crops and trees are mentioned. The land donations implied more than the transfer of land rights. For example, in many cases, along with the revenues and economic resources of the village, human resources such as peasants (cultivators), misans and others were also transferred to donees. There is also growing evidence of the encroachment of the rights of villagers over community lands such as lakes and ponds. Thus, the Brahmanas became managers of agricultural production in these settlements for which they organized themselves into assemblies.
5. Haileybury College ,an educational and training institute for the newly recruited cadets of the east india company. The idea of giving the East India Cadets (newly recruited members of the Company’s Civil Service) a designed education and training before they entered active service was first conceived and implemented by Lord Wellesley. With the purpose of educating and training the newly arrived cadets, Wellesley set up an institution called fort william college in 1800. But the court of directors refused to fund the College on the plea of irregularity. It was established without taking any prior permission from the Court. The Court rejected Wellesley’s Fort William College, but not his idea of building a professional bureaucracy for administering the colonial state. The Court resolved to establish a similar training and educational institute in England. The East India College, commonly known as Haileybury College (from its location) was thus established in 1806.
All cadets were henceforth required to receive education and training at the College for four years to qualify themselves for the Company’s Covenanted Civil Service. Rigid rules and regulations were framed to give moral, physical and intellectual training to the cadets. The educational programme was planned according to the syllabi of the Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Along with the courses on western subjects were introduced additionally the Indian languages and history. For moral training of the cadets were engaged reputed moral philosophers like Rev Samuel Henley (principal) and, Rev Edward Lewton. Thomas R Malthus (1766-1834), a celebrated theorist of Political Economy was also a Moral Philosopher in the College. With Malthus was another great theoretician, David Ricardo (1772-1823).
6. Taji Mideren : A resident of Elopain village in the Ithun Valley, Lohit District, North-East Frontier Agency (Arunachal Pradesh), Taji Mideren was a farmer and trader. He took part in the activities against British rule and killed three British officers near the Dikran river in 1905. He organized his Mishmi fellow tribals and got them to come together to resist the expansion of British authority. He established a Mishmi Confederacy under Pangon and other Mishmi leaders. A British expedition was sent to his village in 1913 to arrest him for the murder of the three British officers. The British burnt down the houses in the village but failed to arrest him and others. He was finally captured by the British police at Sadiya in December 1917, and was deported to Tezpur in Assam. There he was tried and sentenced to death. He died on the gallows in the Tezpur Jail on January 29, 1918.
7. Ijarah System :“Ijarah” is a term of Islamic fiqh. Lexically, it means ‘to give something on rent’. In the Islamic jurisprudence, the term ‘Ijarah’ is used for two different situations. In the first place, it means ‘to employ the services of a person on wages given to him as a consideration for his hired services.” The employer is called ‘musta’jir’ while the employee is called ‘ajir’. Therefore, if A has employed B in his office as a manager or as a clerk on a monthly salary, A is musta’jir, and B is an ajir. Similarly, if A has hired the services of a porter to carry his baggage to the airport, A is a musta’jir while the porter is an ajir, and in both cases the transaction between the parties is termed as Ijarah. This type of Ijarah includes every transaction where the services of a person are hired by someone else. He may be a doctor, a lawyer, a teacher, a laborer or any other person who can render some valuable services. Each one of them may be called an ‘ajir’ according to the terminology of Islamic law, and the person who hires their services is called a ‘musta’jir’, while the wages paid to the ajir are called their ‘ujrah’. Labor The second type of Ijarah relates to the usufructs of assets and properties, and not to the services of human beings. ‘Ijarah’ in this sense means ‘to transfer the usufruct of a particular property to another person in exchange for a rent claimed from him.’ In this case, the term ‘Ijarah’ is analogous to the English term ‘leasing’. Here the lessor is called ‘Mu’jir’, the lessee is called ‘musta’jir’ and the rent payable to the lessor is called ‘ujrah’. Both these kinds of ‘Ijarah’ are thoroughly discussed in the literature of Islamic jurisprudence and each one of them has its own set of rules. But for the purpose of the present book, the second type of Ijarah is more relevant, because it is generally used as a form of investment, and as a mode of financing also. The rules of Ijarah, in the sense of leasing, are very much analogous to the rules of sale, because in both cases something is transferred to another person for a valuable consideration. The only difference between Ijarah and sale is that in the latter case the corpus of the property is transferred to the purchaser, while in the case of Ijarah, the corpus of the property remains in the ownership of the transferor, but only its usufruct i.e. the right to use it, is transferred to the lessee. Therefore, it can easily be seen that ‘Ijarah’ is not a mode of financing in its origin. It is a normal business activity like sale. However, due to certain reasons, and in particular, due to some tax concessions it may carry, this transaction is being used in the Western countries for the purpose of financing also. Instead of giving a simple interest -bearing loan, some financial institutions started leasing some equipment’s to their customers. While fixing the rent of this equipment, they calculate the total cost they have incurred in the purchase of these assets and add the stipulated interest they could have claimed on such an amount during the lease period. The aggregate amount so calculated is divided on the total months of the lease period, and the monthly rent is fixed on that basis. The question whether or not the transaction of leasing can be used as a mode of financing in Shari‘ah depends on the terms and conditions of the contract. As mentioned earlier, leasing is a normal business transaction and not a mode of financing. Therefore, the lease transaction is always governed by the rules of Shari‘ah prescribed for Ijarah.
8. Marumakkathayam is a matrilinear system of inheritance which was followed by all Nair castes including of Royal Families, some of the Ambalavasis, Arayars, Ezhava, some tribal groups and Mappilas in North Malabar of Kerala state, South India. Unlike other Brahmin families, Payanoor Nambootiris also followed Marumakkattayam. Marumakkathayam was also extensively practiced by Srilankan Tamils, later fused with patriarchal under the influence of migrant India Tamils and was known as Thesavalamai. It was one of the few traditional systems that gave women some liberty, and the right to property. In the matrilinear system, the family lived together in a Tharavadu, which comprised a mother, her brothers and younger sisters, and her children. The oldest male member was known as the karanavar and was the head of the household and managed the family estate. Lineage was traced through the mother, and the children "belonged" to the mother's family. All family property was jointly owned. An example is the former princely state of Tiruvitankoor, where the royal lineage passes from the king to his nephew, rather than his son.
The chief representatives, by lieu of their social standing and past research interest, of the castes practicing Marumakkattayam were the Nairs and Mappilas (Muslims) of North Malabar. Their line of descent was traced from the common female ancestress, and it was not a man's own children, but his sister's sons who were his heirs. The family or tharavadu consisted of women living with their brothers and their children in one house. All family property, other than that acquired through individual exertions, belonged to the family jointly, and except through common consent, was indivisible. Each member was entitled to be maintained out of the profits of it, but not to sell or otherwise dispose of it. The management and control of all family property was vested in the eldest male, who is called the Karanavan. Even property individually acquired, although their own to deal with during their lifetime, could not be disposed of by will. On their death, such property merged into the family property. This state of affairs indicates the possibility that in an earlier “classical” form of marumakkattayam, the institution of marriage was absent and that the union of the sexes might simply have been a state of concubinage into which the woman entered out of her own choice, being at liberty to change her consort when and as often as she pleased.
The word Marumakkathayam itself is gender-neutral. It is not Matriarchy. To an extent, it is matrilineal, albeit male-centric. In social anthropology, matrilocal residence would best describe the practice. However, Marumakkathayam extends certain concessions to women, who were the carriers of the man’s family name and legacy. Unlike in many other Indian traditions, they were not considered unwanted births, to be married away and never to return. They were conferred a higher social status, they inherited family property and the family home. The sister of the man came first in affection and responsibility before his own "wife". They did not live in the otherwise common fear of the mother-in-law. At their husband’s homes, where they visited occasionally, they were treated as special guests. But, it still meant that their happiness was determined by the men folk, like many other social systems. Families without an elder male member felt a certain sense of insecurity.
9. The Gurdwara Reform Movement (Gurdwara Sudhar Lehr) is the Legislation passed by the Punjab Legislative Council which marked the culmination of the struggle of the Sikh people from 1920-1925 to wrest control of their places of worship from the mahants or priests into whose hands they had passed during the eighteenth century when the Khalsa were driven from their homes to seek safety in remote hills and deserts.
When they later established their sway in Punjab, the Sikhs rebuilt their shrines endowing them with large jagirs and estates. The management, however, remained with the priests, belonging mainly to the Udasi sect, who, after the advent of the British in 1849, began to consider the shrines and lands attached to them as their personal properties and to appropriating the income accruing from them to their private use. Some of them alienated or sold Gurudwara properties at will. They had introduced ceremonies which were anathema to orthodox Sikhs. Besides, there were complaints of immorality and even criminal behavior lodged against the worst of them. All these factors gave rise to what is known as the Gurudwara Reform movement during which the Sikhs peaceful protests were met with violence and death and ended with them courting arrest on a large scale to gain the world's attention. Before it was all over many would fall as martyrs with some being literally blown apart while they were strapped to cannaon barrels.
‘During the Gurdwara Reform Movement, the Sikh leaders started a publication that was named Akali. From this paper and its policy the leaders began to be called Akalis, in view of which they formed the present Akali party. These Nihang Akalis should not be confused with the members of the Akali party.’ The Turban And The Sword’' , by Dr. Trilochan Singh. (Page 402)
The British government, who at first sided with the priests, eventually relented under popular pressure and passed, in the first instance, the Sikh Gurdwaras and Shrines Act, 1922, which envisaged a committee nominated by the government to take over control of the gurdwaras. This, however, was not acceptable to the Akali leaders and remained for this reason a dead letter. The agitation continued and the government had another draft worked out. Akali counsel was sought this time and the principal demand about the shrines being handed over J or management to a representative body of the Sikhs was conceded. The bill was moved in the Punjab Legislative Council by Sardar Tara Singh of Moga on 7 May 1925 and piloted by another Sikh member, Bhai Jodh Singh, eminent educationist and theologian. The bill was, in the first instance, referred to a select committee which presented its report on 20 June. The Council passed the bill on 7 July. It was published in the Punjab Government Gazette on 7 August and it became operative on 1 November 1925 as The Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925 ( Punjab Act. VIII of 1925).
All of these were asked in the General Studies 2009 paper for the civil services. This marks the official beginning of my study.
1. Kiang Nongbah : The British imposed a house-tax in 1860 which was met with resentment and within a few months, the people rose in a rebellion that was easily put down as the rebels were not organised. Towards the close of 1860 income tax was also levied in addition to the house-tax. There was an apprehension in the air that tax would also be levied on betel and betel-nut. Imposition of these taxes created turmoil amongst the Jaintias and they rose again in a fierce rebellion in 1862. The magnitude of the upsurge was such that as many as seven regiments and detachments of troops were put into action to suppress it. Jowai, which was besieged by the rebels for about 3 weeks, was thus reoccupied amidst heavy casualties. The leader and guiding spirit in this rebellion was a young man, U Kiang Nongbah. In the first rebellion he kept his identity secret and thus avoided arrest. He was extremely shrewd and a great organiser. He contacted all the Dolois and Sirdars without causing any suspicion. He managed to hoodwink the British Intelligence Service. They had no trace of his movements and activities. Yet, ultimately he was defeated because of the superior might of the British. In the unequal fight that ensured, hundreds of Jaintias were killed and U Kiang Nongbah was betrayed, captured and hung publicly to strike terror into the hearts of the Jaintias on December 30, 1862. When he was put to the gallows, he said, in a clear voice: “If my face turns eastward when I die on the rope, we shall be free again within a hundred years. If it turns westwards, we shall be enslaved forever”. His prophesy came true as India became free within a hundred years!
2. Guru Gobind Singh (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ, Hindi: गुरु गोबिन्द सिंह, Marathi: गुरू गोबिंद सिंघ; 22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708) was the tenth Guru of Sikhism. He was born in Patna, Bihar in India and became a Guru on 11 November 1675, at the age of nine years, succeeding his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. He was the leader of the Sikh faith, a warrior, a poet, and a philosopher. In the Sikh society, Guru Gobind Singh is considered a perfect example of manhood; highly educated, skilled in horsemanship, armed combat, chivalrous, and generous in character.[2]
Guru Gobind Singh's life and teachings have had a lasting impression on Sikh ideology as well as in their daily life. His establishment of the Khalsa is considered as one of the most important events in the history of Sikhism. He fought twenty defensive battles with the Mughals and their alliances, such as Rajas of Shivalik Hills. Guru Gobind Singh was the last human Sikh Guru; and in Nanded he declared the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhism, as the next permanent Sikh Guru on October 7, 1708.
3. Maski is a village and an archaeological site in the Raichur district of the state of Karnataka, India. It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. The site came into prominence with the discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka by C. Beadon in 1915. It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Asoka in it instead of the earlier edicts that referred him as Devanampiye piyadasi. This edict was important to conclude that many edicts found earlier in the Indian sub-continent in the name of Devanampiye piyadasi, all belonged to Emperor Ashoka.[3] The edict is etched on a rock-face of Durgada-gudda, one of the gneissic outcrops that are present in the site.
4. Land grants to religious institutions were called Brahmadeya, (i.e. donated to Brahmins) Devadana (donated to Gods) and Agrahara (Settlement – of priests) These lands donated to the temples and monasteries apart from being used as normal tenancy also carried a right vested with the temple authorities to call for unpaid labour (called Vishti) as a religious service to the temple from the tillers on the donated land.
Lands were given as brahmadeya either to a single Brahmana or to several Brahmana families which ranged from a few to several hundreds or even more than a thousand, as seen in the South Indian context. Brahmadeyas were invariably located near major irrigation works such as tanks or lakes. Often new irrigation sources were constructed when brahmadeyas were created, especially in areas dependent on rains and in arid and semi-arid regions. When located in areas of intensive agriculture in the river valleys, they served to integrate other settlements of a subsihena level production. Sometimes, two or more settlements were clubbed together to form a brahmadeya or an agrahara. The taxes from such villages were assigned to the Brahmana donees, who were also given the right to get the donated land cultivated. Boundaries of the donated land or village were very often carefully demarcated. The various types of land, wet, dry and garden land within the village were specified. Sometimes even specific crops and trees are mentioned. The land donations implied more than the transfer of land rights. For example, in many cases, along with the revenues and economic resources of the village, human resources such as peasants (cultivators), misans and others were also transferred to donees. There is also growing evidence of the encroachment of the rights of villagers over community lands such as lakes and ponds. Thus, the Brahmanas became managers of agricultural production in these settlements for which they organized themselves into assemblies.
5. Haileybury College ,an educational and training institute for the newly recruited cadets of the east india company. The idea of giving the East India Cadets (newly recruited members of the Company’s Civil Service) a designed education and training before they entered active service was first conceived and implemented by Lord Wellesley. With the purpose of educating and training the newly arrived cadets, Wellesley set up an institution called fort william college in 1800. But the court of directors refused to fund the College on the plea of irregularity. It was established without taking any prior permission from the Court. The Court rejected Wellesley’s Fort William College, but not his idea of building a professional bureaucracy for administering the colonial state. The Court resolved to establish a similar training and educational institute in England. The East India College, commonly known as Haileybury College (from its location) was thus established in 1806.
All cadets were henceforth required to receive education and training at the College for four years to qualify themselves for the Company’s Covenanted Civil Service. Rigid rules and regulations were framed to give moral, physical and intellectual training to the cadets. The educational programme was planned according to the syllabi of the Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Along with the courses on western subjects were introduced additionally the Indian languages and history. For moral training of the cadets were engaged reputed moral philosophers like Rev Samuel Henley (principal) and, Rev Edward Lewton. Thomas R Malthus (1766-1834), a celebrated theorist of Political Economy was also a Moral Philosopher in the College. With Malthus was another great theoretician, David Ricardo (1772-1823).
6. Taji Mideren : A resident of Elopain village in the Ithun Valley, Lohit District, North-East Frontier Agency (Arunachal Pradesh), Taji Mideren was a farmer and trader. He took part in the activities against British rule and killed three British officers near the Dikran river in 1905. He organized his Mishmi fellow tribals and got them to come together to resist the expansion of British authority. He established a Mishmi Confederacy under Pangon and other Mishmi leaders. A British expedition was sent to his village in 1913 to arrest him for the murder of the three British officers. The British burnt down the houses in the village but failed to arrest him and others. He was finally captured by the British police at Sadiya in December 1917, and was deported to Tezpur in Assam. There he was tried and sentenced to death. He died on the gallows in the Tezpur Jail on January 29, 1918.
7. Ijarah System :“Ijarah” is a term of Islamic fiqh. Lexically, it means ‘to give something on rent’. In the Islamic jurisprudence, the term ‘Ijarah’ is used for two different situations. In the first place, it means ‘to employ the services of a person on wages given to him as a consideration for his hired services.” The employer is called ‘musta’jir’ while the employee is called ‘ajir’. Therefore, if A has employed B in his office as a manager or as a clerk on a monthly salary, A is musta’jir, and B is an ajir. Similarly, if A has hired the services of a porter to carry his baggage to the airport, A is a musta’jir while the porter is an ajir, and in both cases the transaction between the parties is termed as Ijarah. This type of Ijarah includes every transaction where the services of a person are hired by someone else. He may be a doctor, a lawyer, a teacher, a laborer or any other person who can render some valuable services. Each one of them may be called an ‘ajir’ according to the terminology of Islamic law, and the person who hires their services is called a ‘musta’jir’, while the wages paid to the ajir are called their ‘ujrah’. Labor The second type of Ijarah relates to the usufructs of assets and properties, and not to the services of human beings. ‘Ijarah’ in this sense means ‘to transfer the usufruct of a particular property to another person in exchange for a rent claimed from him.’ In this case, the term ‘Ijarah’ is analogous to the English term ‘leasing’. Here the lessor is called ‘Mu’jir’, the lessee is called ‘musta’jir’ and the rent payable to the lessor is called ‘ujrah’. Both these kinds of ‘Ijarah’ are thoroughly discussed in the literature of Islamic jurisprudence and each one of them has its own set of rules. But for the purpose of the present book, the second type of Ijarah is more relevant, because it is generally used as a form of investment, and as a mode of financing also. The rules of Ijarah, in the sense of leasing, are very much analogous to the rules of sale, because in both cases something is transferred to another person for a valuable consideration. The only difference between Ijarah and sale is that in the latter case the corpus of the property is transferred to the purchaser, while in the case of Ijarah, the corpus of the property remains in the ownership of the transferor, but only its usufruct i.e. the right to use it, is transferred to the lessee. Therefore, it can easily be seen that ‘Ijarah’ is not a mode of financing in its origin. It is a normal business activity like sale. However, due to certain reasons, and in particular, due to some tax concessions it may carry, this transaction is being used in the Western countries for the purpose of financing also. Instead of giving a simple interest -bearing loan, some financial institutions started leasing some equipment’s to their customers. While fixing the rent of this equipment, they calculate the total cost they have incurred in the purchase of these assets and add the stipulated interest they could have claimed on such an amount during the lease period. The aggregate amount so calculated is divided on the total months of the lease period, and the monthly rent is fixed on that basis. The question whether or not the transaction of leasing can be used as a mode of financing in Shari‘ah depends on the terms and conditions of the contract. As mentioned earlier, leasing is a normal business transaction and not a mode of financing. Therefore, the lease transaction is always governed by the rules of Shari‘ah prescribed for Ijarah.
8. Marumakkathayam is a matrilinear system of inheritance which was followed by all Nair castes including of Royal Families, some of the Ambalavasis, Arayars, Ezhava, some tribal groups and Mappilas in North Malabar of Kerala state, South India. Unlike other Brahmin families, Payanoor Nambootiris also followed Marumakkattayam. Marumakkathayam was also extensively practiced by Srilankan Tamils, later fused with patriarchal under the influence of migrant India Tamils and was known as Thesavalamai. It was one of the few traditional systems that gave women some liberty, and the right to property. In the matrilinear system, the family lived together in a Tharavadu, which comprised a mother, her brothers and younger sisters, and her children. The oldest male member was known as the karanavar and was the head of the household and managed the family estate. Lineage was traced through the mother, and the children "belonged" to the mother's family. All family property was jointly owned. An example is the former princely state of Tiruvitankoor, where the royal lineage passes from the king to his nephew, rather than his son.
The chief representatives, by lieu of their social standing and past research interest, of the castes practicing Marumakkattayam were the Nairs and Mappilas (Muslims) of North Malabar. Their line of descent was traced from the common female ancestress, and it was not a man's own children, but his sister's sons who were his heirs. The family or tharavadu consisted of women living with their brothers and their children in one house. All family property, other than that acquired through individual exertions, belonged to the family jointly, and except through common consent, was indivisible. Each member was entitled to be maintained out of the profits of it, but not to sell or otherwise dispose of it. The management and control of all family property was vested in the eldest male, who is called the Karanavan. Even property individually acquired, although their own to deal with during their lifetime, could not be disposed of by will. On their death, such property merged into the family property. This state of affairs indicates the possibility that in an earlier “classical” form of marumakkattayam, the institution of marriage was absent and that the union of the sexes might simply have been a state of concubinage into which the woman entered out of her own choice, being at liberty to change her consort when and as often as she pleased.
The word Marumakkathayam itself is gender-neutral. It is not Matriarchy. To an extent, it is matrilineal, albeit male-centric. In social anthropology, matrilocal residence would best describe the practice. However, Marumakkathayam extends certain concessions to women, who were the carriers of the man’s family name and legacy. Unlike in many other Indian traditions, they were not considered unwanted births, to be married away and never to return. They were conferred a higher social status, they inherited family property and the family home. The sister of the man came first in affection and responsibility before his own "wife". They did not live in the otherwise common fear of the mother-in-law. At their husband’s homes, where they visited occasionally, they were treated as special guests. But, it still meant that their happiness was determined by the men folk, like many other social systems. Families without an elder male member felt a certain sense of insecurity.
9. The Gurdwara Reform Movement (Gurdwara Sudhar Lehr) is the Legislation passed by the Punjab Legislative Council which marked the culmination of the struggle of the Sikh people from 1920-1925 to wrest control of their places of worship from the mahants or priests into whose hands they had passed during the eighteenth century when the Khalsa were driven from their homes to seek safety in remote hills and deserts.
When they later established their sway in Punjab, the Sikhs rebuilt their shrines endowing them with large jagirs and estates. The management, however, remained with the priests, belonging mainly to the Udasi sect, who, after the advent of the British in 1849, began to consider the shrines and lands attached to them as their personal properties and to appropriating the income accruing from them to their private use. Some of them alienated or sold Gurudwara properties at will. They had introduced ceremonies which were anathema to orthodox Sikhs. Besides, there were complaints of immorality and even criminal behavior lodged against the worst of them. All these factors gave rise to what is known as the Gurudwara Reform movement during which the Sikhs peaceful protests were met with violence and death and ended with them courting arrest on a large scale to gain the world's attention. Before it was all over many would fall as martyrs with some being literally blown apart while they were strapped to cannaon barrels.
‘During the Gurdwara Reform Movement, the Sikh leaders started a publication that was named Akali. From this paper and its policy the leaders began to be called Akalis, in view of which they formed the present Akali party. These Nihang Akalis should not be confused with the members of the Akali party.’ The Turban And The Sword’' , by Dr. Trilochan Singh. (Page 402)
The British government, who at first sided with the priests, eventually relented under popular pressure and passed, in the first instance, the Sikh Gurdwaras and Shrines Act, 1922, which envisaged a committee nominated by the government to take over control of the gurdwaras. This, however, was not acceptable to the Akali leaders and remained for this reason a dead letter. The agitation continued and the government had another draft worked out. Akali counsel was sought this time and the principal demand about the shrines being handed over J or management to a representative body of the Sikhs was conceded. The bill was moved in the Punjab Legislative Council by Sardar Tara Singh of Moga on 7 May 1925 and piloted by another Sikh member, Bhai Jodh Singh, eminent educationist and theologian. The bill was, in the first instance, referred to a select committee which presented its report on 20 June. The Council passed the bill on 7 July. It was published in the Punjab Government Gazette on 7 August and it became operative on 1 November 1925 as The Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925 ( Punjab Act. VIII of 1925).
All of these were asked in the General Studies 2009 paper for the civil services. This marks the official beginning of my study.
Thursday, January 20, 2011
China News Digest 6
The following has been making headlines in China:
1.China's economy grew 10.3 percent last year, up from 9.2 percent in 2009, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) announced Thursday.
Gross domestic product (GDP) hit 39.8 trillion yuan ($6.05 trillion) last year, up 10.3 percent year on year calculating at comparable prices, Ma Jiantang, director of the NBS, told a press conference Thursday.
2.China and the United States on Wednesday agreed on $45 billion in US export deals and to give US companies greater access to China's $88 billion-plus government contracts market at the start of President Hu Jintao's four-day state visit.White House officials said the agreements included a $19 billion contract to buy 200 Boeing aircraft for delivery between 2011 and 2013.
The White House also announced deals in various stages of development involving Honeywell, Caterpillar, Westinghouse Electric, a unit of Japan's Toshiba Corp, and other companies. The announcements served to underscore the theme of economic cooperation struck by Hu and Obama.
3.The Chinese government has allocated 98.6 billion yuan ($15 billion) for farmers nationwide in a bid to maintain steady grain output and boost farmers' incomes.
The bulk of the funding - 83.5 billion yuan - is to be used in the purchasing of farm machinery such as equipment to plant seeds and reapers.
The remainder, 15.1 billion yuan, would subsidize farmers in growing crops such as rice, corn, and cotton, according to a statement released Thursday by the Ministry of Finance.
The move came as most northern Chinese regions, plagued by a months-long drought, will continue to see cold and dry weather in the next 10 days, the National Meteorological Center forecast Wednesday.
The drought has affected some 4 million hectares of crops and left about 2.2 million people short of drinking water, according to the State Flood Control and Drought Relief Headquarters on Monday.
4.China on Thursday urged India to properly handle issues related to the detention of three Chinese nationals by Indian Police, said Foreign Ministry Spokesman Hong Lei.
Hong made the remarks in response to a question on China's reaction on the issue.
He said three Chinese tourists recently strayed into Indian territory from Nepal when travelling at the Nepalese-Indian border and were detained by Indian Police.
The Chinese embassy in India are contacting Indian Police for further information, and asking the Indian side to properly deal with the issue, said Hong.
Hong told reports that the three Chinese tourists were spies or had engaged in money laundering were groundless.
Indian police said Wednesday they had arrested three Chinese nationals on Monday in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
5.India Wednesday said that it is likely to ink defense contracts worth 460 billion rupees (about $10 billion) in the next five to 10 years.
"In the 11th Plan, the value of offsets contracts is likely to be more than 100 billion rupees. In addition, (offsets worth) 48. 18 billion rupees are at the contract negotiation and 315 billion rupees are at other stages," Indian Minister of State for Defense M.M. Pallam Raju said in the national capital.
Stating that offsets provide an opportunity for small and medium enterprises to emerge as suppliers for Indian defense companies and earn a significant revenue, he said 12 offsets contracts worth 99.43 billion rupees have been signed which have benefitted 85 public and private sector companies.
The minister said that the country is looking to procure an increased number of platforms such as unmanned aerial vehicles, Airborne Early Warning Systems, refuelling tankers, battle tanks and missile systems.
6.The Chinese State Council will give away 10.4 billion yuan ($1.58 billion) to help low-income families enjoy Spring Festival, the www.gov.cn reported Wednesday.
The decision to issue the Spring Festival allowances was made at a meeting of the State Council on Jan 19 chaired by Premier Wen Jiabao.
The allowances will be classified into three categories. Low income urban residents entitled to basic living allowances will be given 150 yuan ($22.77) per person. Rural residents receiving subsistence allowances, as well as the elderly, disabled and teenagers who can't work and have no income or family, will be given 100 yuan ($15.18) per person.
7.
The following are highlights of Chinese President Hu Jintao's activities in the United States Wednesday, the second day of his state visit to the country.
-- President Hu attend an official welcome ceremony on the South Lawn of the White House. During the ceremony, Hu said his state visit is aimed at increasing mutual trust, enhancing friendship, deepening cooperation and pushing forward the positive, cooperative and comprehensive China-U.S. relationship for the 21st century.
Hu told his U.S. counterpart Barack Obama that both countries "share broad common interests and important common responsibilities" and should adopt a long-term perspective and seek common ground while reserving differences.
-- Later, President Hu held talks with Obamba at the White House and made a five-point proposal for enhancing bilateral ties.
He said firstly the two sides should develop a political relationship of equality, mutual trust and seeking common ground while reserving differences.
Secondly, Hu said both sides should deepen their comprehensive, cooperative, mutually beneficial and win-win economic ties.
China and the U.S. should jointly meet challenges through global cooperation, further their friendship with the extensive involvement of both peoples, establish a high-level contact pattern featuring in-depth communication and candid dialogue, He said.
Both leaders expressed their dedication to developing a cooperative partnership based on mutual respect and mutual benefit. They also mapped out major directions for bilateral ties as well as key areas to deepen cooperation.
-- At a joint press conference with Obama, Hu said China and the United States have agreed to further boost their bilateral relationship toward a cooperative partnership based on mutual respect and mutal benefit for the benefit of the whole world.
He said the two sides "should firmly adhere to the right direction," respecting each other's core interests and handling their relations with a long-term perspective, which will enable both countries to make greater contributions to world peace and development.
Hu stressed that Beijing and Washington "share expanding common interests and shoulder increasing common responsibilities."
Accordingly, the two sides have agreed to strengthen exchanges and cooperation in economy, trade, environment, education, science and technology, non-proliferation and counter-terrorism among many other fields, he added.
Hu put forward a three-point proposal for both countries to better work together to tackle global problems: to keep up the in-the-same-boat spirit of cooperation, to increase communication and coordination and to respect and accommodate each other's interests and concerns.
8. China surpassed South Korea to become the world's largest shipbuilder in 2010 in terms of shipbuilding capacity and new orders, according to recently released statistics from China's Ministry of Industry and Information.
The statistics show that from January to December 2010, China's shipyards finished building 65.6 million deadweight tons, an increase of 54.6 percent year on year. They received new orders exceeding 75 million deadweight tons, nearly triple the amount of a year earlier.
The great development of the shipbuilding industry in recent years can be mostly attributed to the increasing capacity requirements due to economic growth, said an expert from the economic research center of China's shipbuilding industry.
1.China's economy grew 10.3 percent last year, up from 9.2 percent in 2009, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) announced Thursday.
Gross domestic product (GDP) hit 39.8 trillion yuan ($6.05 trillion) last year, up 10.3 percent year on year calculating at comparable prices, Ma Jiantang, director of the NBS, told a press conference Thursday.
2.China and the United States on Wednesday agreed on $45 billion in US export deals and to give US companies greater access to China's $88 billion-plus government contracts market at the start of President Hu Jintao's four-day state visit.White House officials said the agreements included a $19 billion contract to buy 200 Boeing aircraft for delivery between 2011 and 2013.
The White House also announced deals in various stages of development involving Honeywell, Caterpillar, Westinghouse Electric, a unit of Japan's Toshiba Corp, and other companies. The announcements served to underscore the theme of economic cooperation struck by Hu and Obama.
3.The Chinese government has allocated 98.6 billion yuan ($15 billion) for farmers nationwide in a bid to maintain steady grain output and boost farmers' incomes.
The bulk of the funding - 83.5 billion yuan - is to be used in the purchasing of farm machinery such as equipment to plant seeds and reapers.
The remainder, 15.1 billion yuan, would subsidize farmers in growing crops such as rice, corn, and cotton, according to a statement released Thursday by the Ministry of Finance.
The move came as most northern Chinese regions, plagued by a months-long drought, will continue to see cold and dry weather in the next 10 days, the National Meteorological Center forecast Wednesday.
The drought has affected some 4 million hectares of crops and left about 2.2 million people short of drinking water, according to the State Flood Control and Drought Relief Headquarters on Monday.
4.China on Thursday urged India to properly handle issues related to the detention of three Chinese nationals by Indian Police, said Foreign Ministry Spokesman Hong Lei.
Hong made the remarks in response to a question on China's reaction on the issue.
He said three Chinese tourists recently strayed into Indian territory from Nepal when travelling at the Nepalese-Indian border and were detained by Indian Police.
The Chinese embassy in India are contacting Indian Police for further information, and asking the Indian side to properly deal with the issue, said Hong.
Hong told reports that the three Chinese tourists were spies or had engaged in money laundering were groundless.
Indian police said Wednesday they had arrested three Chinese nationals on Monday in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
5.India Wednesday said that it is likely to ink defense contracts worth 460 billion rupees (about $10 billion) in the next five to 10 years.
"In the 11th Plan, the value of offsets contracts is likely to be more than 100 billion rupees. In addition, (offsets worth) 48. 18 billion rupees are at the contract negotiation and 315 billion rupees are at other stages," Indian Minister of State for Defense M.M. Pallam Raju said in the national capital.
Stating that offsets provide an opportunity for small and medium enterprises to emerge as suppliers for Indian defense companies and earn a significant revenue, he said 12 offsets contracts worth 99.43 billion rupees have been signed which have benefitted 85 public and private sector companies.
The minister said that the country is looking to procure an increased number of platforms such as unmanned aerial vehicles, Airborne Early Warning Systems, refuelling tankers, battle tanks and missile systems.
6.The Chinese State Council will give away 10.4 billion yuan ($1.58 billion) to help low-income families enjoy Spring Festival, the www.gov.cn reported Wednesday.
The decision to issue the Spring Festival allowances was made at a meeting of the State Council on Jan 19 chaired by Premier Wen Jiabao.
The allowances will be classified into three categories. Low income urban residents entitled to basic living allowances will be given 150 yuan ($22.77) per person. Rural residents receiving subsistence allowances, as well as the elderly, disabled and teenagers who can't work and have no income or family, will be given 100 yuan ($15.18) per person.
7.
The following are highlights of Chinese President Hu Jintao's activities in the United States Wednesday, the second day of his state visit to the country.
-- President Hu attend an official welcome ceremony on the South Lawn of the White House. During the ceremony, Hu said his state visit is aimed at increasing mutual trust, enhancing friendship, deepening cooperation and pushing forward the positive, cooperative and comprehensive China-U.S. relationship for the 21st century.
Hu told his U.S. counterpart Barack Obama that both countries "share broad common interests and important common responsibilities" and should adopt a long-term perspective and seek common ground while reserving differences.
-- Later, President Hu held talks with Obamba at the White House and made a five-point proposal for enhancing bilateral ties.
He said firstly the two sides should develop a political relationship of equality, mutual trust and seeking common ground while reserving differences.
Secondly, Hu said both sides should deepen their comprehensive, cooperative, mutually beneficial and win-win economic ties.
China and the U.S. should jointly meet challenges through global cooperation, further their friendship with the extensive involvement of both peoples, establish a high-level contact pattern featuring in-depth communication and candid dialogue, He said.
Both leaders expressed their dedication to developing a cooperative partnership based on mutual respect and mutual benefit. They also mapped out major directions for bilateral ties as well as key areas to deepen cooperation.
-- At a joint press conference with Obama, Hu said China and the United States have agreed to further boost their bilateral relationship toward a cooperative partnership based on mutual respect and mutal benefit for the benefit of the whole world.
He said the two sides "should firmly adhere to the right direction," respecting each other's core interests and handling their relations with a long-term perspective, which will enable both countries to make greater contributions to world peace and development.
Hu stressed that Beijing and Washington "share expanding common interests and shoulder increasing common responsibilities."
Accordingly, the two sides have agreed to strengthen exchanges and cooperation in economy, trade, environment, education, science and technology, non-proliferation and counter-terrorism among many other fields, he added.
Hu put forward a three-point proposal for both countries to better work together to tackle global problems: to keep up the in-the-same-boat spirit of cooperation, to increase communication and coordination and to respect and accommodate each other's interests and concerns.
8. China surpassed South Korea to become the world's largest shipbuilder in 2010 in terms of shipbuilding capacity and new orders, according to recently released statistics from China's Ministry of Industry and Information.
The statistics show that from January to December 2010, China's shipyards finished building 65.6 million deadweight tons, an increase of 54.6 percent year on year. They received new orders exceeding 75 million deadweight tons, nearly triple the amount of a year earlier.
The great development of the shipbuilding industry in recent years can be mostly attributed to the increasing capacity requirements due to economic growth, said an expert from the economic research center of China's shipbuilding industry.
Evolution and Darwinian Sexuality
This post shall talk about Darwinian ideas of evolution and how evolutionary psychology has programmed us into behaving as we do. The primary topic discussed is sexuality and evolutionary basis of sexual rituals.
If we have to sum up Darwin's ideas in 10 words , they are "Multiply ,vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die." Here strongest refers to the best adapted organism, whether through brains, brawn, camouflage or anything else that facilitates reproduction and survival.
Darwin's views on sexual psychology can be gleaned from this quote, " The female , with the rarest exception, is less eager than the male , She is coy, and may often be seen endeavouring for a long time to escape from the male.The exertion of some choice on the part of the female seems almost as general a law as the eagerness of the male. "
The understanding of this trend is based on the concept of parental investment.Parental investment refers to any investment by a parent in the offspring that increases its chances of survival. Parental investment includes the time and energy consumed in producing a sperm or an egg,achieving fertilization ,gestating or incubating the egg and rearing the offspring. Almost universally there is an imbalance in female and male parental investment. For the male,it is in his evolutionary interest to harbour an aggressive willingness to mate with as many females as possible as he has much less of an investment. For the female, whose investment is much higher, it is in her genetic interest ,to accept the burden of reproduction ,only when the circumstances seem propitious. Since unusually fit males tended to have unusually fit offspring , it is in her interest to be able to pick the fittest male. So natural selection creates a " skilled salesmanship among the males and an equally well-developed sales-resistance and discrimination among females".
What do females want? In species, where the male parental investment is very low,the basic dynamic of courtship is quite simple: the male really wants sex, the female isn't so sure.She inspects the male for his gene-quality unconsciously, and then may want a pre-copulation offering.This nuptial offering,technically constitutes a tiny male parental investment, since it nourishes her and her eggs. For instance, the female hanging fly insists on having a dead insect to eat during sex.If she finishes before the male is finished,she may head off in search of another meal,leaving him high and dry.If she isn't so quick, the male may repossess the leftovers for subsequent dates. Of course , there are instances ,where the post-coital parental investment from the male is his own head. The female preying mantis frequently eats the male partner after he has performed his job, that of fertilizing her eggs,thus providing "extra nourishment" for the family line. The really alpha-males in the preying mantis have legendary instances of fertilizing more than one female before finally being eaten!
But in species where there is high male parental investment, the female is concerned not only with the male's genetic investment , but with what he'll bring to the offspring after it materializes.And that explains, why in all cultures, women place more emphasis than males on a potential mate's financial prospects.
What do men want ? It is misleading to say that males in a high-male-parental-investment species are selective about mates, but in theory they are "selectively" selective. On the one hand,males will have sex with just about anything that moves,given an easy chance, like males in a low-MPI-species.On the other hand, when it comes to finding a female for a long-term joint venture,discretion makes sense,males can undertake only so many ventures in one lifetime,so the genes that the partner brings to the project- genes for robustness,brains,beauty etc.,are worth scrutinizing.
The distinction was nicely elucidated by a study in which both men and women were asked about the minimal level of intelligence they would accept in a person they were "dating".The average response for both male and female, was:average intelligence.They were also asked how smart a person would have to be before they would consent to sexual relations.The women said:"Oh, in that case, markedly above average." The men said "Well, markedly below average".
This shall conclude this post. The next post on this topic shall talk about marriage and related cultural practices from an evolutionary standpoint.
If we have to sum up Darwin's ideas in 10 words , they are "Multiply ,vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die." Here strongest refers to the best adapted organism, whether through brains, brawn, camouflage or anything else that facilitates reproduction and survival.
Darwin's views on sexual psychology can be gleaned from this quote, " The female , with the rarest exception, is less eager than the male , She is coy, and may often be seen endeavouring for a long time to escape from the male.The exertion of some choice on the part of the female seems almost as general a law as the eagerness of the male. "
The understanding of this trend is based on the concept of parental investment.Parental investment refers to any investment by a parent in the offspring that increases its chances of survival. Parental investment includes the time and energy consumed in producing a sperm or an egg,achieving fertilization ,gestating or incubating the egg and rearing the offspring. Almost universally there is an imbalance in female and male parental investment. For the male,it is in his evolutionary interest to harbour an aggressive willingness to mate with as many females as possible as he has much less of an investment. For the female, whose investment is much higher, it is in her genetic interest ,to accept the burden of reproduction ,only when the circumstances seem propitious. Since unusually fit males tended to have unusually fit offspring , it is in her interest to be able to pick the fittest male. So natural selection creates a " skilled salesmanship among the males and an equally well-developed sales-resistance and discrimination among females".
What do females want? In species, where the male parental investment is very low,the basic dynamic of courtship is quite simple: the male really wants sex, the female isn't so sure.She inspects the male for his gene-quality unconsciously, and then may want a pre-copulation offering.This nuptial offering,technically constitutes a tiny male parental investment, since it nourishes her and her eggs. For instance, the female hanging fly insists on having a dead insect to eat during sex.If she finishes before the male is finished,she may head off in search of another meal,leaving him high and dry.If she isn't so quick, the male may repossess the leftovers for subsequent dates. Of course , there are instances ,where the post-coital parental investment from the male is his own head. The female preying mantis frequently eats the male partner after he has performed his job, that of fertilizing her eggs,thus providing "extra nourishment" for the family line. The really alpha-males in the preying mantis have legendary instances of fertilizing more than one female before finally being eaten!
But in species where there is high male parental investment, the female is concerned not only with the male's genetic investment , but with what he'll bring to the offspring after it materializes.And that explains, why in all cultures, women place more emphasis than males on a potential mate's financial prospects.
What do men want ? It is misleading to say that males in a high-male-parental-investment species are selective about mates, but in theory they are "selectively" selective. On the one hand,males will have sex with just about anything that moves,given an easy chance, like males in a low-MPI-species.On the other hand, when it comes to finding a female for a long-term joint venture,discretion makes sense,males can undertake only so many ventures in one lifetime,so the genes that the partner brings to the project- genes for robustness,brains,beauty etc.,are worth scrutinizing.
The distinction was nicely elucidated by a study in which both men and women were asked about the minimal level of intelligence they would accept in a person they were "dating".The average response for both male and female, was:average intelligence.They were also asked how smart a person would have to be before they would consent to sexual relations.The women said:"Oh, in that case, markedly above average." The men said "Well, markedly below average".
This shall conclude this post. The next post on this topic shall talk about marriage and related cultural practices from an evolutionary standpoint.
Tuesday, January 18, 2011
Message to readers : Future posts
Apart from the intermittent China news posts , the next few posts in this blog will be about the following 3 subjects :
1. China : An account of its Economic Miracle .
2. Evolutionary Psychology : Why we are what we are ?
3. Cognitive Psychology : How our brain works ?
I will be posting soon . So watch out and stay connected .
Cheers and adios !
1. China : An account of its Economic Miracle .
2. Evolutionary Psychology : Why we are what we are ?
3. Cognitive Psychology : How our brain works ?
I will be posting soon . So watch out and stay connected .
Cheers and adios !
Saturday, January 15, 2011
China news digest 5.
Here's what is making news in China --
1. Wen Jiabao has stressed the need for technological developments and scientific research which would be the cornerstone of the nation's future. This was at a function where 2 of China's greatest scientists were awarded for their lifetime contribution.
2. China's senior experts Saturday called on local governments to shift their focus from gross domestic product (GDP) figures to economic restructuring and the raising of ordinary people's living standards.Reducing environmental problems and boosting energy efficiency also slows GDP growth pace, said Wang, citing pressure on China to keep its annual energy consumption below four billion tonnes of standard coal in 2020.
An economy that grows too fast is difficult to transform, especially when the growth is driven by investment, Wang said.
3. China hopes stability in Tunisia is restored as early as possible, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei said Saturday.
Hong made the remarks when responding to a question concerning recent unrest and upheaval in the North African nation.
"Tunisia is China's friend. China is concerned with what is happening in Tunisia and hopes stability in the country is restored as early as possible," said Hong, adding that a stable society is in the fundamental interests of the country's people.
4. Property taxes, seen as a silver bullet to curb excessive growth in China's housing prices, triggered an intense debate among economists and industry analysts recently, with some saying it may not help tame soaring prices but rather, increase costs for home buyers.Rigid demand for housing has remained robust in China because of accelerating urbanization and industrialization. Every year, between 10 million and 15 million rural residents migrate to cities, and this trend may be continued for the next decade, experts forecast.Both the influx of populations and property speculation have pushed up China's housing prices, prompting the government to roll out measures to control the runaway market, including increasing down payment requirements, suspension of mortgage loans for third-home purchases and, more importantly, pledging to speed trials of a property tax that might be rolled out nationwide.
5. The successful test flight of J-20, China's new-generation fighter, on Jan 10 is a significant achievement for the country, especially for its defense industry. It is a symbolic leap in the country's military modernization drive, too.
Yet there is no reason for China to be excessively conceited or complacent. It should not forget the huge gap between it and Western developed countries, led by the United States, in terms of military armament and weaponry. More importantly, it should remain highly vigilant against the possibility of some countries using the J-20 fighter as an excuse to stoke a new round of "China threat" frenzy.The peaceful development path that China has chosen and its defensive national defense policy pose no threat to any country. It is normal for any country to try and upgrade its military and weaponry to safeguard its national security.
China develops and produces weapons and military equipment for self-defense. It has the right to safeguard its sovereignty, security and territorial integrity. And there is no reason for other countries or regions to feel threatened.
Chinese leaders have on innumerous occasions made it clear that China is opposed to hegemony and military expansion, and it will under no circumstances be part of or trigger an arms race.
1. Wen Jiabao has stressed the need for technological developments and scientific research which would be the cornerstone of the nation's future. This was at a function where 2 of China's greatest scientists were awarded for their lifetime contribution.
2. China's senior experts Saturday called on local governments to shift their focus from gross domestic product (GDP) figures to economic restructuring and the raising of ordinary people's living standards.Reducing environmental problems and boosting energy efficiency also slows GDP growth pace, said Wang, citing pressure on China to keep its annual energy consumption below four billion tonnes of standard coal in 2020.
An economy that grows too fast is difficult to transform, especially when the growth is driven by investment, Wang said.
3. China hopes stability in Tunisia is restored as early as possible, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Hong Lei said Saturday.
Hong made the remarks when responding to a question concerning recent unrest and upheaval in the North African nation.
"Tunisia is China's friend. China is concerned with what is happening in Tunisia and hopes stability in the country is restored as early as possible," said Hong, adding that a stable society is in the fundamental interests of the country's people.
4. Property taxes, seen as a silver bullet to curb excessive growth in China's housing prices, triggered an intense debate among economists and industry analysts recently, with some saying it may not help tame soaring prices but rather, increase costs for home buyers.Rigid demand for housing has remained robust in China because of accelerating urbanization and industrialization. Every year, between 10 million and 15 million rural residents migrate to cities, and this trend may be continued for the next decade, experts forecast.Both the influx of populations and property speculation have pushed up China's housing prices, prompting the government to roll out measures to control the runaway market, including increasing down payment requirements, suspension of mortgage loans for third-home purchases and, more importantly, pledging to speed trials of a property tax that might be rolled out nationwide.
5. The successful test flight of J-20, China's new-generation fighter, on Jan 10 is a significant achievement for the country, especially for its defense industry. It is a symbolic leap in the country's military modernization drive, too.
Yet there is no reason for China to be excessively conceited or complacent. It should not forget the huge gap between it and Western developed countries, led by the United States, in terms of military armament and weaponry. More importantly, it should remain highly vigilant against the possibility of some countries using the J-20 fighter as an excuse to stoke a new round of "China threat" frenzy.The peaceful development path that China has chosen and its defensive national defense policy pose no threat to any country. It is normal for any country to try and upgrade its military and weaponry to safeguard its national security.
China develops and produces weapons and military equipment for self-defense. It has the right to safeguard its sovereignty, security and territorial integrity. And there is no reason for other countries or regions to feel threatened.
Chinese leaders have on innumerous occasions made it clear that China is opposed to hegemony and military expansion, and it will under no circumstances be part of or trigger an arms race.
Monday, January 10, 2011
China News Digest 4
Here's what made news today :
1. China opposes US military sales to Taiwan. It also said that China's military advancement is not directed against any specific country.
2. China and Britain ink $ 4 billion worth of trade deals. This is on the backdrop of similar deals with Germany and Spain.
3. A survey revealed that Chinese students consider Confucius, Traditional Chinese medicine and Mao Zedong to represent China's culture most effectively.
4.Chinese policymakers are looking for new laws to curb pollution.
5.Unemployment is a serious concern for Chinese youth in 2011.
1. China opposes US military sales to Taiwan. It also said that China's military advancement is not directed against any specific country.
2. China and Britain ink $ 4 billion worth of trade deals. This is on the backdrop of similar deals with Germany and Spain.
3. A survey revealed that Chinese students consider Confucius, Traditional Chinese medicine and Mao Zedong to represent China's culture most effectively.
4.Chinese policymakers are looking for new laws to curb pollution.
5.Unemployment is a serious concern for Chinese youth in 2011.
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